Christian Dior: History and Analysis

Christian Dior: History and Analysis I chose the topic of Christian Dior and John Galliano because fashion has always interested me. Dior is one of the most well known luxury fashion brands in the world. I was really interested to see what effect the influence of a new designer had on the fashion house. I was interested to see how the designs had changed from the Christian Dior era of 1947-1957 to the present day, this will be addressed in the second and third chapters of this dissertation. I feel that this is a good topic for a dissertation because I have not been able to find an example of this study before. This means that I will compile information into a new study. The first chapter will address the history of Christian Dior, where he came from, how he started life as a designer, how he managed to get a backer for his fashion house and how well his house was managed up until his death. The second chapter will address the New Look and the branding and marketing of that era. It will focus on the reaction of the new look, how it was branded and who it was marketed to. Also this chapter will look at the typical client of Dior at the time of his success. The third chapter will address the history of John Galliano and his time at Dior, from when he was first appointed head designer to the present day. It will look at his background, his design history and how he has changed the way Dior is perceived. The fourth chapter will look at how Galliano has changed the branding and marketing of the Dior house. It will focus on how Dior has remained one of the worlds top fashion houses, who Dior is marketed to and how it is branded. All of this will show how Galliano has changed Dior. I have decided to organise my dissertation into two halves. The first two chapters will discuss the house of Dior when Christian Dior was alive. The third and fourth chapters will analyse the house of Dior with John Galliano as head designer. My aims and objectives for this dissertation are as follows; To compare how designs have changed from the New Look to the present day How Galliano has affected the house of Dior How the branding and marketing of the fashion house has changed from when Dior was alive to the present day All of these points will be kept in mind when writing the dissertation, to make sure that the research used is relevant to the topic. Chapter 1: A History of Dior Christian Dior was born on 31st January 1905 in the Normandy town Granville. At the age of five, Dior and his family moved to Paris (Design Museum n.d). To please his father he enrolled in the world renowned school, Ecole des Sciences Politiques, in hope that he would go on to have a career in politics. However he wanted to pursue a career in art or design (Design Museum n.d). In 1927, after his obligatory military service Dior decided to open an art gallery and with the help of his father he succeeded in doing so (Stegemeyer 1980:22). In 1935, after a one year stay in the south of France to recover from illness, he returned to Paris and tried to find a job but to no avail (Stegemeyer 1980:22). He started to create design sketches in his spare time and eventually he managed to find employment with Le Figaro working on fashion illustrations (Stegemeyer 1980:22). He was able to sell some of his designs to fashion houses. The most popular designs turned out to be his hat designs, although his dream was to sell dress designs (Stegemeyer 1980:22). He perfected his designs and was able to sell some of them to renowned designer Robert Piguet (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Piguet was impressed with his work and commissioned Dior to make a number of his dresses for one of his upcoming shows (Stegemeyer 1980:22). He was later hired as a designer. However, his job was to be put on hold when he was called back to the military when the Second World War began (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Robert Piguet asked Dior to come back and work for him af ter the fall of Paris (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Dior declined the offer and stayed in the south of France until the end of 1941. This turned out to be a bad decision because when he returned to Paris there was already a new designer in his place (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Once he learnt of this he found employment with the larger fashion house of Lucien Lelong (Stegemeyer 1980:22). He was still with the Lelong house when Paris was liberated in 1944 (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Christian Dior was introduced to a financier called Marcel Boussac in 1945 (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Boussac was a very powerful man who owned a number of textile mills, newspapers and racing stables (Design Museum n.d.). Boussac also owned the couture house, Philippe et Gaston, which was failing (Design Museum n.d). He was looking for someone to take control of the fashion house and thought that Dior would be the right person to do this (Stegemeyer 1980:22). However, Dior had other ideas; he wanted to start his own fashion house and decided that Boussac was the right person to help him achieve this goal (Stegemeyer 1980:22). Once Boussac had heard of Diors ambitions he decided to back him and Dior left Lelong in 1946 (Stegemeyer 1980:22). It made sense for Dior to work with Boussac, whose nickname was the King of Cotton, because the ideas that Dior had been discussing meant that he needed access to a large amount of fabric. The new fashion house was opened with a budget of 60 million Francs (Design Museum n.d). A civil servant called, Jacques Rouà «t was given the job of administrator of the fashion house (Design Museum n.d). Christian Dior presented his first collection, Corolla, in 1947 (Cawthorne 1996:109). The collection was a much more successful than anyone had thought. It was a revolutionary collection that will be discussed further on in this dissertation. At the time that the collection was presented there were a number of strikes occurring in the French newspaper and magazine industry (Cawthorne 1996:109). This lack of opportunity for publicity made it more difficult for Dior to become recognised as a top designer. Another problem that Dior encountered was that the majority of American buyers and journalists had already returned to the United States after seeing the designers that they wanted to see (Cawthorne 1996:109). One American editor remained, Carmel Snow of Harpers Bazaar and went to see Diors fashion show. She declared that Corolla was revolutionary with a New Look. She is known to have said to Dior Its quite a revolution, dear Christian. Your dresses have such a new look. (Cawthorne 1996:109) A worker from Life magazine overheard what Snow had said and published work about the New Look. This name stuck and has been know as this since then. After the success of Diors first collection Jacques Rouà «t started to look into other ways of making money. He found that other fashion houses, such as Chanel, had branched out into other areas of fashion, for example, perfume and hosiery (Design Museum n.d). He realised that in order to become more successful and world renowned, Dior needed to make products that could be sold around the world. He opened a shop on New Yorks Fifth Avenue, which was a fur subsidiary and a ready to wear boutique (Design Museum). He also launched Diors first perfume, Miss Dior, with the American market in mind (Design Museum n.d). When Dior saw what Rouà «t was doing, it brought his commercial aptitude to light (Design Museum n.d). This was evident when an American company wanted to buy the rights to manufacture Diors stockings. They offered Rouà «t $10 000, but Dior did not want this (Design Museum n.d). He said that he would rather have a percentage of the sales of the stockings and in turn he would waive the fee for the rights (Design Museum n.d). The Dior couture house was probably the best run house in Paris at that time; the only other competitors were Pierre Balmain and Cristobà ¡l Balenciaga (Design Museum n.d). The reason that Diors house was so well run was due to the people that worked for him (Design Museum n.d). There were five very important people who worked for Dior, the person who ran his studio, Raymonde Zehnmacker, his chief stylist and hat designer, Mitza Bricard and the person who was in charge of the workrooms, Marguerite Carrà © (Design Museum n.d). These people along with Jacques Rouà «t and Suzanne Luling enabled the Dior brand to be run efficiently (Design Museum n.d). This shows that the people behind the scenes are just as important as the designer (Design Museum n.d). Without them the Dior brand would have struggled to get the acclaim that it has today. Twice a year Dior would put on a haute-couture show, one in January and one in August, and every time he showed his new collection over 2,500 people would turn up to see what the new designs looked like (Design Museum n.d). His biggest clients were from North America, where a select number of shops bought the rights to certain designs for the clothes, which were then made by their own seamstresses (Design Museum n.d). There was a large amount of clothing stores that wanted to be able to sell Diors clothes but as they were discount stores they would not be able to sell them to their clientele as the price was so high (Design Museum n.d). So Dior said to them that if they attended his fashion shows and bought a range of his clothes and outfits they could copy them and sell them at cheaper prices (Design Museum n.d). This was the start of the knock-off range of his designs (Design Museum n.d). The reason that he was so popular in North America was due to Harpers Bazaar editor, Carmel Snow. If she had not attended his first fashion show and written about him then it would have taken him a lot longer to reach the American and Canadian market (Cawthorne 1996:109). The house of Dior was very important to France and particularly Paris at that time; in some respects it put France to the foreground of fashion once again. Chapter 2: The New Look; Branding and Marketing On the 12th of February 1947 Dior presented his first collection from his fashion house to French society. It was called Corolla, after a coil of leaves and petals on a flower. It has always been Diors aim to make women feminine and more flower like, and his first collection epitomised this (Cawthorne 1996:109). At the time, just three years after Paris was liberated, women were still wearing unflattering, practical and sometimes even masculine clothing. This was to save money and fabric during this hard time when most of Europe was still using rationing. At the time of production the New Look was a completely radical clothing range. It was made to make women look and feel more feminine and curvy. Christian Dior wanted women to look like women and give them back their natural shape (Cawthorne 1996:111). The New Look was an exaggeration on the number eight, with accentuated hips, small, narrow waist and an underlined bust. A typical skirt in this line required on average 25 yards of fabric and around 200 hours of labour to complete (Cawthorne 1996:111). At a time when France was nearly bankrupt it was seen as outrageous that Dior would use such large amounts of material. The Americans in particular thought that it was unpatriotic to use large amounts of material for dresses when it could be used for other things (Cawthorne 1996:110). There were, however, people who liked the fact that Dior was being extravagant as it showed the French people that the war was really over and that people could start living again(Cawthorne 1996:110). His clothes were everything that women wanted. Men thought that women should start dressing more feminine, they were fed up with seeing them wearing mens clothing or military uniforms. They thought that Diors designs were ideal for making women look like wo men (Cawthorne 1996). Appendix one is evidence of the exaggerated number eight. This is a picture of the Bar Suit from the Corolla range. The fact that Diors range of clothes were so feminine made them stand out from the rest of the clothes that were on offer at the time, the added curves made women feel special and more womanly. Along with this feeling the Dior house took the opportunity to express the feeling of happiness and freedom after the war; people were able to start living again. This became a crucial part of the Christian Dior brand. The way that Dior designed his clothes took a lot of hidden expertise (Cawthorne 1996:111). To get the very womanly, curvy figure that he wanted to give women there were hidden pieces of material within the dresses (Cawthorne 1996:111). Some people criticised Dior. They claimed that he was giving a false interpretation of women, that without the added padding in the dresses they would not look like they should; women did not generally have the figure that these dresses created (Cawthorne 1996:111). To create the look, Dior designed the dresses to have a corset made from whale bones. The reason for the boning in the corset was that it needed to be moulded to the customers shape (Cawthorne 1996:111). It was also necessary to wear padding for the hips and a padded bra when wearing these clothes (Cawthorne 1996:111). It would take two or three fittings for the outfit to be completed but when it was done, it would fit like a glove (Cawthorne 1996:111) It could have turned out to be a big problem in that women might not want to buy clothes where you have to wear a lot of extra padding, but as it turned out the need for feminine clothing was so great that people bought them, no matter what they had to endure to achieve this (Cawthorne 1996:111). At this time you could not buy a ready to wear Dior piece, you had to have it made for you, similar to Haute Couture today. There were a lot of protests about the New Look; one of the biggest protests in France was in Paris where the protesters were shouting 40 000 francs for a dress and our children have no milk (Cawthorne 1996:115). This attitude was adopted in other parts of the world. In Britain, designers were asked to ignore the style; this was due to the amount of clothes that could be made from the extra fabric that would have been used (Cawthorne 1996:115). If British designers had adopted the New Look then there would have been close to a million items of clothing not made (Cawthorne 1996:115). The government nearly created a new law on the length of skirts to make sure that they would not be long, like the style of Dior where some of the skirts would reach the ankles (Cawthorne 1996:115). The reaction was so strong that when Dior went to America people shouted at him, down with the New Look and burn Christian Dior (Cawthorne 1996:117). He was not surprised and stuck to his feelings that women should be able to dress femininely if they wanted. He even said that he loved to see his dresses being copied so that women who did not have a lot of money could have a dress that had been designed by Dior (Cawthorne 1996:117). Despite all the protests and complaints the New Look was an incredible success. It accounted for 75 percent of fashion exports from France in 1947, which was a big achievement considering the conditions of the world at the time (Cawthorne 1996). As soon as the New Look was presented to society it was automatically branded as luxury. The main reasons for this were the price, clientele and the amount of work that went into producing the clothes. As time went on the Christian Dior house decided to branch out into other brands. There was the Christian Dior Femme line, a hosiery line, a fur subsidiary and a perfume line (Design Museum n.d). Diors range of products were out of the price range of the working class public. You had to be either rich or a member of aristocracy to be able to afford products from any Dior range. The only affordable products would have been a bottle of perfume or a pair of stockings or tights. However these would have been difficult to afford during the times of rationing. During the forties and fifties not many shops outside Paris stocked Diors products which made it difficult for people to easily buy Diors merchandise. If you lived outside of Paris travel would have been long and arduous so you would have had to go with the mentality that you were going to buy something, not just to browse. When the advertising for this brand began it was quite difficult for Dior to rely on the articles in newspapers and magazines, due to the strikes (Cawthorne 1996:109). He also had to wait for the word of mouth in America; the editor of Harpers Bazaar could only do so much. At the time of the New Look the perception of women was that they did not work and that their job was to stay at home, raise the children and make sure that the house was run properly. However the women in the aristocracy did not have to worry about these things, they did not have to clean their houses or cook, as they would normally have had a maid and a cook to do these things for them. This is why Dior and his team aimed and marketed the clothes from the New Look at these women. They could wear them without having to worry about the practicalities of them, they would not have to worry about getting them marked when they were cleaning or cooking. In 1947 the protests in Paris and other countries were reported on the news, bringing the name of Dior and his designs to the attention of people whom it would have taken a lot longer to reach through advertising alone. In some ways the people who were protesting may have been better if they had not protested because then the rest of the world would probably not have heard as much about the designs or about Dior himself. Letting people produce his designs at cheaper prices or making knock-offs showed that this was Diors way of reaching the rest of the public (Design Museum n.d). He liked and sometimes encouraged people to make cheaper versions of his clothes; this was a way of making him happy, just like he wanted the people that were wearing them to be happy about their choice and their shape (Design Museum n.d). The haute couture side of Dior was important for the label. It brought in a lot of revenue as the dresses and other clothes that were made in that line were very expensive and took a lot of time to create. Once again you would not be able to buy these clothes if you did not have a lot of money as they were expensive, even by higher societys standards. It was important for Dior to be able to prove that the times were changing and that clothes needed to change with them. He accomplished this with his range of clothes from the New Look. The branding and marketing were quite simplistic in those days. However they always managed to put across the point that they wanted to prove. Chapter 3: John Galliano and His Influence on Christian Dior John Galliano was born in Gibraltar in 1960. His real name is Juan Carlos Antonio Galliano Guillen and he moved to London when he was six (Design Museum n.d). After leaving school he attended the prestigious art school in London, Central Saint Martins (Design Museum n.d). His first collection was inspired by a play, for which he was a dresser and when Joan Burstein, the owner of fashion boutique Browns saw this she stocked his collection, which quickly sold out (Design Museum n.d). Even though he had attracted publicity and hype, when he tried to start his own business two backers pulled out (Design Museum n.d). Due to this in the 1990s he moved to Paris, where he met American Vogue Editor-in-Chief, Anna Wintour, who used her influence to introduce him to a sound financial backer, and she also found him a venue for his first show (Design Museum n.d). He managed to assemble 17 outfits, all of which were in black because bolts of black fabric were all that he could afford, and he secured the services of top international models, such as, Kate Moss and Naomi Campbell, who modelled his designs as a favour to him rather than being paid (Design Museum n.d). His show was a success and it proved to the fashion world that he was a great and very influential designer. Galliano was grateful to Anna Wintour for the opportunities that she created and she was influential in launching his designs in America. After the success of his latest fashion show, Chairman of the conglomerate LVMH (Moà «t Hennessy -Louis Vuitton) Bernard Arnault, had noticed the brilliance of Galliano and in 1995 very daringly decided to appoint Galliano as head designer for Givenchy (Design Museum n.d). However a year later Alexander McQueen took his place. This gave Galliano the opportunity to move onto the bigger fashion house of Dior. Dior was an internationally renowned company (Design Museum n.d). In 1996 when John Galliano was appointed the head designer of the Christian Dior fashion house the designs took on a new direction. Galliano is quoted as saying I wanted to turn couture on its head (Galliano n.d). This is evident throughout his collections. Appendix two is an example of this. The dress in this picture is the dress that he was talking about when he said that he wanted to change couture (Dior n.d.). When Galliano first started working for Dior after Giancarlo Ferre the previous designer, left, it was almost as if the fashion house was starting to stagnate. It was mainly concentrating on the womens clothing range and there was not much emphasis put on the advertising of perfumes and other products. It needed to be brought into modern times. Arnault had made the right decision in hiring Galliano for this role because he was a younger designer. He was fifteen years younger than Ferre and six years younger than Dior when he presented his first collection. This brought lots of positive aspects to Dior. Having a younger designer enabled him to know what the target group desired. However he had to be careful not to alienate the traditional clientele. Instead of having the designs that they were used to they would have found that he was a designer who had very different ideas from that of his predecessor. This gave the brand of Dior the wakeup call that it needed so that once again Dior became a leading fashion house. Galliano is famous for his radical and sometimes over the top creations and designs, and this was what was needed at the time. When he arrived at the fashion house he breathed new life and inspiration into the company. It appears that he takes inspiration from a lot of his surroundings and especially from the surrealist works of the artists Salvador Dali and Jean Cocteau (Frankel 2001:172). This is an important fact. Instead of being very conservative he has brought an aspect of surrealism to the designs. The clothing no longer has the curvy aspects to the designs, although in later designs there are a few influences from the New Look with very small waists and long skirts. There are a lot of colours that are used in the new designs. They are a lot more vivid than before and they stand out from the rest of the designers in the fashion industry. Gallianos first dress he designed for Dior is a perfect example of this. It is a bright pink dress cut on the bias and therefore very close to the body. This just shows how different Galliano is in comparison with Diors early work (Dior n.d). The amount of detailing that goes into a Galliano couture piece is very intricate; Dior employees are very skilled and talented. They hand stitch, hand bead or embroider a large number of the dresses (Dior n.d). Some might say that he has created a new New Look (Dior n.d). It shows how much more energy there is in the fashion house now. The fashion shows are a very important part of any designers collections. Gallianos always appear to have a theme running through them and are normally quite theatrical. For example in his Autumn/Winter haute couture collection for 2010 there is a definite equestrian theme and the fashion show is made more dramatic by the music that is being played, at the beginning there are sounds of horses hooves (Dior n.d). This is typical of the Galliano influence on the shows (Dior n.d). Once again it emphasises how much Galliano has brought to Dior. The fashion house of Dior had never had shows like it before. There are many positive views to this; free publicity is the main benefit. When people start talking about the shows it intrigues others to find out more about the new Dior collection. However Galliano has been careful to find a fine balance between the theatrics, drawing the attention away from what the show is all about the new designs. It has come to be expected of a Galliano for Dior fashion show, the eccentric shows match the eccentric designs and designer. In Gallianos Spring/Summer collection in 1999 the main theme running through the clothes and fashion shows was surrealism (Frankel 2001:172). He is quoted as saying as Dali and Cocteau understood it, with wit but always romantic (Frankel 2001:172). The clothes definitely have a romantic style to them, but there is also an element of fun in the clothes and in the way photos from the collection have been taken. Although this one collection has been centred around surrealism there always seems to be an aspect of it in all the work he has created. The ready-to-wear clothing line has been emphasised a lot since Galliano has been head designer. It is an important change for Dior, most customers are unwilling to wait to buy their clothes anymore and will not spend the time to have the clothes fitted and made for them. They want to buy the clothes and take them home with them. Galliano has picked up on this and made the collection a very big part of the house of Dior. These clothes may not be as exclusive as the clothes in the haute couture lines but the Galliano influence is very easy for people to see. Since he started at Dior he has been creating designs that have, on occasion, shocked the fashion industry. When there is a new collection at his flagship store in Paris the queues of people waiting to view it normally stretch down the Avenue Montaigne (Design Museum n.d.). He has an ambition to go down in history as one of the best designers in the world, and it seems he will succeed in his mission. Chapter 4: Branding and Marketing in the Present Day Even after Galliano joined Christian Dior, it was still perceived as a luxury brand. The products however are much more diverse than before. Although Diors products are still classed as luxury there are now more items that can be afforded by a wider range of people. These lines include; sunglasses, watches, perfume and purses. The Dior products are likely to be more expensive than the equivalent high street items. However, the fact that they have Diors brand on them appeals to more people. When you buy a product with a brand name on the general thought is that you are purchasing products perceived to be of a much higher quality than the general high street ranges. The fact that they are not normally found in all high street chains and are produced to a higher quality makes people think that the product they are buying is worth spending the extra money on. When Galliano was appointed head designer it was evident to him that the whole brand needed to be brought up to date. Until then the Christian Dior fashion house had always been known as Christian Dior. When it was rebranded it became known as just Dior (Okonkwo 2007:109). This was done to make the brand as a whole more modern and to keep up with the new direction that Galliano was taking the brand. However the company name remains unchanged, it is still known as Christian Dior Couture (Okonkwo 2007:109). With a new brand name the range of products needed to be modernised. The house of Dior did not want to be associated with old fashioned designs and products. There was a need for the Dior brand to reach a larger number of the public. For example the Dior perfumes are available in most beauty stores and are around the same price as other luxury branded fragrances. The beauty range is a very popular segment in the new brand but it can still be sold at a premium price against other makeup ranges. However if people believe in the quality of the product they will be prepared to pay higher prices. It is very important for a luxury brand such as Dior, to be able to produce a range of products that do not ignore other market segments. Producing the beauty line along with watches and eyewear enable them to reach a wider spectrum of customers. The beauty products are an extremely important line because they enable everyone to have the chance to buy a designer product and therefore Dior is capturing a larger share of the market. This is reflected in the fact that LVMHs perfume and beauty products sell to a larger share of the market because this year in their first quarter they have increased their sales by 12%. In perfume, where LVMH sells Christian Dior and Guerlain fragrances, sales were up 12% (The Guardian 2010) LVMH have put a lot of time and resources into re-launching the Dior fragrance range which has led to an improvement in sales. This proves how much Dior relies on the sales of their mass market products, as shown in figure 1. In Perfumes Cosmetics, organic revenue growth stood at 12% in the first quarter of 2010. Christian Dior benefited from the strong dynamic of its perfumes with, in particular, the growth of Fahrenheit and of Miss Dior Chà ©rie. A new skincare product, Capture Totale One Essential, had an immense success, while the new mascara, DiorShow Extase is having a very promising start. Guerlain successfully rolled out its new Idylle perfume and Givenchy saw strong growth thanks to the progress of its Play line. Benefit and Make Up For Ever continued their international development. Taking into account the uncertainty of the strength of the economic recovery, LVMH will continue to concentrate all of its efforts on the development of its formidable brands while maintaining strict cost management and selective investments. The Group will rely on the strength of its brands, the responsiveness of its organization, the diversification of its businesses and the good geographical balance of its revenue to increase, once again in 2010, its leadership of the global luxury industry. These two tables are evidence of the increased growth of the perfume and cosmetics of Dior. It has contributed to a 12% increase in sales, even throughout the economic crisis. In the present day most luxury brands have five common lines of their products (Okonkwo 2007:130). They are fashion, perfume and cosmetics, watches and jewellery, eyewear and other. The fashion line includes haute couture, ready-to-wear and leather goods. The first four lines are very standard for all luxury brands, Dior included (Okonkwo 2007:130). The other section is the only section to have been added in the past few years. The products under this section include stationery, gift items, products to decorate your house and hair accessories (Okonkwo 2007:130). Not all luxury brands have the other section under their brand name. Dior does not produce all of these products in their other section. The one main change that the majority of luxury brands have gone through is the introduction of online retailing (Okonkwo 2007:211). This was not necessarily Galliano who decided to do this, it was more due to the changing times, but it was necessary to show that Dior is an easily accessible brand and that people from all over the world could buy a product from the Dior.com website. According to Uche Okonk

Memory Conformity of Autobiographical Events: an fMRI Study

Memory Conformity of Autobiographical Events: an fMRI Study Whether privately, when we remember a past experience, or publicly, when we recall a shared memory with a friend, remembering is a functional process. The narratives of our past help us define and maintain our sense of self and meet the social demands of the community (Barnier, Sutton, Harris, Wilson, 2008; Harris, Paterson, Kemp, 2008). However, far from being exact replications of the past, our recollections may be influenced by previous knowledge and imagination, external demands and internal expectations, and exposure to subsequent information (Dudai Edelson, 2016; Schacter, Guerin, St. Jacques, 2011). Memory, indeed, is a constructive process (St Jacques, Olm, Schacter, 2013). While the malleability of our memories is a necessary feature for an adaptive memory system, both psychological and neuroscientific research in the false memory literature has consistently shown that the flexibility of our memory processes also render memories vulnerable to errors and distortions (Lof tus, 2005; Loftus Pickrell, 1995; Schacter et al., 2011; Schacter Loftus, 2013; St Jacques et al., 2013). Extensive research has indeed demonstrated the detrimental effects that incorrect or misleading post-event information has on the content of memory reports, a phenomenon called the misinformation effect (Loftus, 2005). In the classical misinformation paradigm, participants are asked to remember an event, take a memory test that contains some kind of misinformation, and then complete a final memory test for the original event. Across experiments results have consistently shown that after receiving the misinformation, participants in the final test tend to change the content of their memory or even endorse a memory for an event that never happened (Frenda, Nichols, Loftus, 2011; Loftus, 2005; Loftus Pickrell, 1995). Typically, researchers have explained this phenomenon in accordance with a source-monitoring framework that sees false memories as arising from participants errone ous attribution of the misinformation to the original event (Johnson, 1997). Recent research on the misinformation effect with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has started to reveal the underlying mechanisms that support false memory formation (Frenda et al., 2011; Schacter Loftus, 2013). Although with some degree of variation mostly accounted by different experimental procedures, neuroimaging studies have shown that brain activity associated with encoding-related processes particularly in the hippocampal complex during the original event and misinformation phase is predictive of whether the misinformation would be later endorsed (Baym Gonsalves, 2010; Okado Stark, 2005; Schacter Loftus, 2013; St Jacques et al., 2013). These studies point to the adaptive perspective of memory. Although different pattern of activation do seem to distinguish true from false memories, the misinformation effect found in behavioral studies seem to arise from a flexible memory system that through reactivation and reconsolidation is responsible for memory updating (Schacter et al., 2011; Schacter Loftus, 2013; St Jacques et al., 2013). Thus, the misinformation effect is a byproduct of functional memory processes that allow the incorporation of new information but are susceptible to memory errors (Dudai Edelson, 2016; Frenda et al., 2011; Schacter et al., 2011; St Jacques et al., 2013). Given the powerful influence and adaptive value that post-event information has on memory, recent research has increasingly begun to explore the misinformation effect when the incorrect information comes from other people, i.e. the source of the misinformation is social (Oeberst Seidemann, 2014; Schacter Loftus, 2013). In numerous real-world contexts, ranging from the exposure to mass media, social interactions, and eyewitness testimony, remembering an event involves sharing information with other people (Edelson, Sharot, Dolan, Dudai, 2011). While sharing information enhances individual memory performance when events are encoded poorly, in others circumstances, especially when incorrect information is shared, collective remembering is likely to produce memory errors (Harris et al., 2008; Hirst Echterhoff, 2012; Rajaram Pereira-Pasarin, 2010).   Indeed, research converging experiments on social conformity and the misinformation effect have provided extensive evidence supp orting the idea that people change their memory reports in response to incorrect information from a social source, a phenomenon often referred to as memory conformity (Dudai Edelson, 2016; Gabbert, Memon, Allan, 2003; Gabbert, Memon, Wright, 2006; Horry, Palmer, Sexton, Brewer, 2012; Jaeger, Lauris, Selmeczy, Dobbins, 2012; Meade Roediger, 2002; Roediger, Meade, Bergman, 2001; Thorley, 2013; Wright, Self, Justice, 2000; Wright, Memon, Skagerberg, Gabbert, 2009). Memory conformity represents a special kind of misinformation effect that exerts strong influence on memory reports a study has found that participants were more likely to report the misinformation when the incorrect information came from discussion with a confederate as opposed to when it was included in narratives (Gabbert, Memon, Allan, Wright, 2004) and has high ecological validity. Not only has research found that about 86% of eyewitnesses have reported talking to another person before providing their testim ony but also cases have been documented in which co-witness sharing of information has led to the wrongful conviction of a suspect (Oeberst Seidemann, 2014; Thorley, 2013; Wright et al., 2000; Wright et al., 2009). Although participants may change their memory reports in the presence of social pressure due to normative influences (i.e., participants report the incorrect information solely out of the need to comply with others) and informational influences (i.e., participants report the incorrect information because they believe the others to be right), the literature on the misinformation effect suggests that memory conformity may arise from false memory formation (Gabbert et al., 2003; Meade Roediger, 2002; Oeberst Seidemann, 2014; Roediger et al., 2001; Wright et al., 2009). Studies have in fact shown that participants tend to report the incorrect information even in later memory tests, where participants are tested individually in the absence of social pressure, and misattribu te the endorsed misinformation to the original event (Meade Roediger, 2002; Roediger et al., 2001). Evidence to the false memory account also comes from neuroimaging studies that have tried to identify the neural correlates involved in memory conformity. In an fMRI study by Edelson, Sharot, Dolan, and Dudai, (2011), groups of five participants were shown a video of a mock crime and were tested three times on the content of their memory across two weeks. Critically, in the second test, the researchers manipulated the misinformation by showing participants either fake incorrect answers of the four co-observers or no answers. Consistent with previous research on the misinformation effect, greater activity in encoding-related regions, specifically the bilateral anterior hippocampus, bilateral posterior hippocampus and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus was found for trials that resulted in erroneous answers even in the absence of social pressure but not for trials that resulted in errors due to social pressure or in correct answers. The researchers also found increased activity in the bilateral amygdala, a region involved in social-emotional processing, and increased functional connectivity between this region and the hippocampus in persisting memory conformity errors (Edelson et al., 2011). Not only these results indicate that participants updated their memory when they received the misinformation, replicating previous neuroimaging results, but they also reveal the role of the amygdala in the integration of social-specific information in memory (Dudai Edelson, 2016; Edelson et al., 2011). For its high relevance to the forensic context, past research on memory conformity has focused on studying the social forces that influence memory reports mainly in the field of eyewitness testimony (Gabbert et al., 2003; Harris et al., 2008; Horry et al., 2012; Jaeger et al., 2012; Oeberst Seidemann, 2014; Williamson, Paul; Weber, Nathan; Robertson, 2013; Wright et al., 2009). The effects of social forces on the content of autobiographical memories, however, represent an area of research that seems to have been neglected by the literature on memory conformity (Barnier et al., 2008). Autobiographical memories are memories of personal experiences, commonly accompanied with high personal and sometimes emotional relevance (Harris et al., 2008). Given the role that autobiographical memories have in individual and community-directed behavior, as we selectively remember events that help us maintain our individual and group identity, and their occurrence in social interactions, as people u sually share their memories in conversation when they remember a past experience (Dudai Edelson, 2016; Harris et al., 2008; Rajaram Pereira-Pasarin, 2010; Zawadzka, Krogulska, Button, Higham, Hanczakowski, 2015), the present study attempts to study the susceptibility of autobiographical memories to social influences that create memory errors and distortions. Previous studies on false memories provide, perhaps unintentionally, some evidence for the endorsement of misinformation coming from social sources, whether implicitly through questionnaires created by the experimenter or explicitly by specifically informing the participants about the source of the misinformation (Hirst Echterhoff, 2012). Indeed, in Loftus and Pickerells (1995) notorious lost in the mall paradigm, 29% of participants came to form a completely false memory about being lost in a mall when they were children. Critically, the false event was firstly introduced through narratives from a close relative (Hirst Ech terhoff, 2012; Loftus Pickrell, 1995). In recent attempts to understand the effects of social influence on autobiographical memories, a study has directly manipulated the presence of a social source, by introducing a piece of misinformation about a participants personal memory during conversation with a confederate. The study found that a week after receiving the misinformation from the confederate, about 30% participants included the misinformation in their final description of their memory (Barnier et al., 2008). Together, these findings suggest that rich autobiographical false memories might indeed be influenced by post-event information introduced by social actors (Harris et al., 2008). The present study thus aims at understanding the cognitive mechanisms of memory conformity for autobiographical memories using fMRI. The experiment will adapt a novel museum tour paradigm used by St Jacques et al. (2013), which allows the control over the encoding of real-world events and measures of memory accuracy, to study the neural mechanisms involved in the influence of post-event information on autobiographical memories to the previously described memory conformity procedure used by Edelson et al. (2011). Studying the neural mechanisms involved in memory conformity for personal events has indeed methodological, theoretical, and applied valence. From a methodological perspective, the memory conformity procedure used in Edelson et al. (2011) study and the museum tour paradigm used in St Jacques et al. (2013) will offer new ways to systematically study both autobiographical memories using fMRI and their susceptibility to social influences. Understanding the mechanisms involved in the integration of social information in autobiographical memories will extend our theoretical knowledge on the flexibility of our memory system responsible both for the formation of false memories and adaptive memory updating. Finally, studying the mechanisms involved in the effects of social influences on autobiographical memories will also expand the memory conformity literature to the real-world examples of personal memories, critical for the forensic context where jurors are asked to judge eyewitness memory reports of personally relevant events (Schacter Loftus, 2013). Based on previous research reviewed above, the following predictions are hypothesized. Behaviorally, trials where the misinformation is introduced by fake co-observers answers will produce errors that are likely to persist even when participants are tested individually (persistent errors) (H1). Neuroimaging data will show greater activity in the hippocampal complex for the social misinformation condition opposed to the no-misinformation condition (H2). Additionally in the social manipulation condition, greater hippocampal activity will be measured for trials that produce errors that persist in the absence of social influences compared to trials that produce errors only in the presence of co-observers answers (transient errors) or trials where no conformity is produced (H3). Finally, the special role of the amygdala in the integration of social information will be also studied. More hippocampus-amygdala connectivity for persistent errors produced by the social-manipulation condition i s expected when contrasted with transient errors and the control condition (H4). Methods Participants Forty right-handed participants will be recruited through the University of Kent Research Participation Scheme. Participants with history of psychiatric disorder or using medication known to affect cognitive functioning will be excluded. Design procedure The study is a within-participants design, divided into four phases, specifically an encoding phase, a first memory test (Test 1), a manipulation phase (Test 2), and a final memory test (Test 3) (Edelson et al., 2011). Encoding phase (day 0): Groups of five unacquainted participants will be provided with an iTouch (Apple) outlining a self-guided audio tour of the British Museum (London, UK) and will be asked to wear a camera that automatically takes photographs every 15 seconds (St Jacques et al., 2013). There will be two slightly different versions of the museum tour, each composed by 208 stops, which will be counterbalanced between groups of participants. Test 1 (day 3):   Participants will take a first forced-choice memory test individually for the museum tour. They will be shown two photographs (A B) for every museum stop; one taken from the version of the tour they have experienced, the other from the alternate tour they have not experienced. The photographs will be matched for every stop between the two versions. They will be then asked to choose the museum stop they remember taking part in and to rate their confidence from 0 (guess) to 100 (absolute confidence). Answers will provide the baseline for accuracy and confidence before the manipulation. Manipulation phase Test 2 (day 7): Participants will be asked to take a second individual memory test in the fMRI scanner. The test will be similar to Test 1 but after the photographs presentation and before participants response, another screen will appear with the pictures of the co-observers. For the photographs of museum stops that received a high confidence correct answer in Test 1, co-observers pictures will be presented with either all incorrect answers (manipulation condition), all correct answers (credibility condition), or an X replacing the answers (no manipulation condition). The credibility condition helps to avoid suspicion from participants, will contain different photographs taken from all the questions in Test 1 and will be excluded from analysis. Test 3 (day 14): Participants will take a final individual memory test identical to Test 1 in the scanner. Before the test, participants will be warned that the answers provided by the co-observers in Test 2 were randomly generated. Materials All stimuli and materials will be taken from St Jacques et al. (2013) and adapted for the purpose of the present study. Analysis The following analyses are based on Edelson et al. (2011)s study (see supplementary information). Behavioral data A repeated measure GLM with error type (transient errors, persistent errors, non-conformity, and no manipulation) as a factor will be conducted. Transient errors: trials where the social manipulation was introduced and for which participants give a first correct answer (Test 1), an incorrect answer in Test 2, and revert back to the correct answer in Test 3. Persistent errors: trials where the social manipulation was introduced for which participants give a first correct answer in Test 1 but an incorrect answer in both Test 2 and 3. Non-conformity: trials where the social manipulation was introduced and for which participants give a correct answer in both Test 2 and 3. No manipulation: trials where co-observers answers will not be given. Neuroimaging data Region of interest analysis: activity in previously identified regions of interest (ROI) (i.e., bilateral amygdala, bilateral para-hippocampus and bilateral anterior and posterior hippocampus) will be analyzed with repeated measures GLM with error type (persistent errors, transient errors, non-conformity, and no manipulation) as a factor. Functional connectivity analysis: whole brain analysis will be conducted to measure functional connectivity between activated ROIs and the left amygdala across experimental conditions. Why fMRI? Reasons why other methods are not appropriate The primary interest of this study is to identify the underlying neural mechanisms that support the long-lasting integration of new and sometimes incorrect information about personal events in memory as a function of social influence. Although the study takes advantage of measures of accuracy and error rates, the primary interest is not in measuring overt behavior, so behavioral methods (i.e., reaction times), are not appropriate. Behavioral studies have in fact been unable to distinguish between the different cognitive processes (i.e., normative influences, informational influences, and memory distortions) that lead to memory conformity (Edelson et al., 2011; Thorley, 2013). Similarly eye tracking is not an appropriate method either. Although measures of eye-fixation and eye-movement during the presentation of misinformation could be informative about attentional processes that lead to successful encoding, these measures cannot distingu ish between different cognitive processes that support memory conformity. This study does not intend to measure neuronal activity, so methods of electrical activity, namely EEG and ERPs, are not appropriate. Although they could be informative about the time when integration processes happen, measures of electrical activity cannot tell us where these processes are supported functionally in the brain. Finally, the present study does not aim at manipulating brain activity as it focuses on understanding the automatic online processes that are associated with memory conformity, so methods of brain stimulation (i.e., TMS) are not appropriate. Reasons why fMRI is appropriate As the present study aims at understanding the cognitive mechanisms involved in the integration of post-event, social misinformation that lead to memory conformity for autobiographical memories, fMRI represents the most appropriate method. Measures of brain activity in encoding-related regions during the presence of misinformation from a social source can provide information about the cognitive processes associated with memory conformity for personal events and distinguish between social influences (i.e., normative or information) and memory distortions that lead to false autobiographical memory reports. Previous studies have in fact shown that activity in the hippocampal complex at encoding is predictive of whether the misinformation will produce long lasting memory change (Edelson et al., 2011; St Jacques et al., 2013). Similarly, identifying the functional architecture of the encoding processes that support the integration of social information in memory will reveal the cognitive mechanisms underlying memory updating, which make memories flexible and vulnerable to social influences (Schacter et al., 2011). Because of its non-invasiveness and better temporal resolution, fMRI is more suitable than other measures of brain activity, such as PET. References: Barnier, A. J., Sutton, J., Harris, C. B., Wilson, R. A. (2008). A conceptual and empirical framework for the social distribution of cognition: The case of memory. Cognitive Systems Research, 9(1-2), 33-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2007.07.002 Baym, C. L., Gonsalves, B. D. (2010). Comparison of neural activity that leads to true memories, false memories, and forgetting: An fMRI study of the misinformation effect. Cognitive, Affective Behavioral Neuroscience, 10(3), 339-48. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.10.3.339 Dudai, Y., Edelson, M. G. (2016). Personal memory: Is it personal, is it memory? Memory Studies, 9(3), 275-283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750698016645234 Edelson, M., Sharot, T., Dolan, R. J., Dudai, Y. (2011). Following the Crowd: Brain Substrates of Long-Term Memory Conformity. Science, 333(6038), 108-111. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203557 Frenda, S. J., Nichols, R. M., Loftus, E. F. (2011). Current Issues and Advances in Misinformation Research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(1), 20-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410396620 Gabbert, F., Memon, A., Allan, K. (2003). Memory conformity: Can eyewitnesses influence each others memories for an event? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17(5), 533-543. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.885 Gabbert, F., Memon, A., Allan, K., Wright, D. B. (2004). Say it to my face: Examining the effects of socially encountered misinformation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 9, 215-27. https://doi.org/10.1348/1355325041719428 Gabbert, F., Memon, A., Wright, D. B. (2006). Memory conformity: Disentangling the steps toward influence during a discussion. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 13(3), 480-485. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193873 Harris, C. B., Paterson, H. M., Kemp, R. I. (2008). Collaborative recall and collective memory: what happens when we remember together? Memory, 16(3), 213-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701811862 Hirst, W., Echterhoff, G. (2012). Remembering in conversations: the social sharing and reshaping of memories. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 55-79. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100340 Hirst, W., Manier, D. (2008). Towards a Psychology of Collective Memory. Memory, 16(3), 183-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701811912 Horry, R., Palmer, M. A., Sexton, M. L., Brewer, N. (2012). Memory conformity for confidently recognized items: The power of social influence on memory reports. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(3), 783-786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.010 Jaeger, A., Lauris, P., Selmeczy, D., Dobbins, I. G. (2012). The costs and benefits of memory conformity. Memory Cognition, 40(1), 101-112. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0130-z Johnson, M. K. (1997). Source monitoring and memory distortion. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 352, 1733-1745. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1997.0156 Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: a 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning Memory, 12(4), 361-366. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.94705 Loftus, E. F., Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70059-9 Meade, M. L., Roediger, H. L. (2002). Explorations in the social contagion of memory. Memory Cognition, 30(7), 995-1009. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194318 Oeberst, A., Seidemann, J. (2014). Will your words become mine? underlying processes and cowitness intimacy in the memory conformity paradigm. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expà ©rimentale, 68(2), 84-96. https://doi.org/10.1037/cep0000014 Okado, Y., Stark, C. E. L. (2005). Neural activity during encoding predicts false memories created by misinformation. Learning Memory, 12(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.87605 Rajaram, S., Pereira-Pasarin, L. P. (2010). Collaborative memory: Cognitive research and theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(6), 649-663. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610388763 Roediger, H. L., Meade, M. L., Bergman, E. T. (2001). Social contagion of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 8(2), 365-371. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196174 Schacter, D. L., Guerin, S. A., St. Jacques, P. L. (2011). Memory distortion: an adaptive perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(10), 467-474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.004 Schacter, D. L., Loftus, E. F. (2013). Memory and law: What can cognitive neuroscience contribute? Nature Neuroscience, 16(2), 119-23. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3294 St Jacques, P. L., Olm, C., Schacter, D. L. (2013). Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(49), 19671-8. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319630110 Thorley, C. (2013). Memory conformity and suggestibility. Psychology, Crime Law, 19(7), 565-575. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2011.648637 Williamson, Paul; Weber, Nathan; Robertson, M.-T. (2013). The Effect of Experitise on Memory Conformity: A Test of Informational Influence. Behavioral Sciences the Law, 31, 607-623. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl Wright, D. B., Memon, A., Skagerberg, E. M., Gabbert, F. (2009). When eyewitnesses talk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 174-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01631.x Wright, D. B., Self, G., Justice, C. (2000). Memory conformity: exploring misinformation effects when presented by another person. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 189-202. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712600161781 Zawadzka, K., Krogulska, A., Button, R., Higham, P. A., Hanczakowski, M. (2015). Memory, Metamemory, and Social Cues: Between Conformity and Resistance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(2), 181-199. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000118

Neuropsychologist and Patient Perspectives :: Tumors Cancer Neurology Medical Essays

Neuropsychologist and Patient Perspectives There are many classifications of tumors that compress or destroy the hypothalamus. A few forms are craniopharyngioma, germinoma, and glioma. Symptoms of craniopharyngioma include headaches, visual disturbances, pituitary hormone deficiencies, retardation of growth, and calcification of the sella region in children. Germinoma, also called ectopic pineoloma or atypical teratoma, has similar effects to serninoma of the testis or dysgerminoma of the ovary. Another destructive cancer is glioma of the hypothalamus. Hand-Schuller-Christian disease produces hypopituitarism with delayed puberty, growth retardation, and diabetes insipidus; this type of cancer occurs in children (Yen and Jaffe 1986). Since the hypothalamus regulates release of hormones through the pituitary gland, one of the most common effects of damage to the hypothalamus is disruption of hormone release or hormone deficiency. Some common types of hormone deficiencies are gonadotropin, thyroid stimulating, adrenocorticotopic, growth, multiple, and panhypopituitarism. Gonadotropin deficiency is characterized by low levels of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone. This deficiency can lead to decreased fertility, disrupted menstruation, decreased sex drive, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and loss of body hair. Typical treatment is hormone replacement therapy. Deficiency of thyroid stimulating hormone and subsequent lack of thyroid gland stimulation lead to a condition called hypothyroidism. Common symptoms include intolerance to cold, weight gain, constipation, fatigue, and pale, waxy skin. Before hormone replacement is used to stimulate the thyroid, it is typical to try treating the adrenal glands with steroids. Adrenocorticotopic hormone deficiency is the name for low levels of corticotropin (ACTH), a hormone that stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol. Some signs of ACTH deficiency are low blood pressure, weakness, fatigue, weight loss, and in women nausea, pale skin, and loss of pubic hair. Daily doses of hydrocortisone or cortisone are used to correct this deficiency. Deficiency of growth hormone before physical maturity will impair growth, and in adults may be noticeable by obesity or skin wrinkling. Careful doses of growth hormone are administered to children with this condition and in adults may help restore the healthy muscle to fat ratio. Multiple hormone deficiency is more common than deficiency of a single hormone and usually loss occurs in a specific order: first growth, then luteinizing, follicle- stimulating, thyroid stimulating, and adrenocorticotopic. This process is typically slow and occurs over months and years, but hypopituitarism can start suddenly as in the case of traumatic brain injury. Panhypopituitarism is the loss of all hormones released by the pituitary, also called complete pituitary failure.

Overview of Different Theories of Motivation Essay -- Motivational The

Cherry, Kendra. (2013). Theories of Motivation: A closer look at some important theories of motivation. http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologytopics/tp/theories-of-motivation.htm The Incentive Theory of Motivation states that people do things, such as work because of the rewards that come with. For example, a child might help his grandmother clean in order to receive cookies. His motivation is the reward of the cookies. In the working world, people get rewarded by other rewards. Some of these rewards are salary, security, and health benefits. Taylor, F. W. (1964). Shop Management. In Scientific Management (Vol. 1, pp. 17-20). New York and London: Happy and Brothers Publishers. Retrieved April 17, 2014 This article provides excellent information about Frederick Winslow Taylor’s research on motivation and the science of management. It provides an interesting perspective on motivation through looking at management as a science. Frederick Winslow Taylor believed that naturally, people do not like to perform tasks and work and they need to be pushed. Workers also need to be controlled. Miner, B. John. (2005). Library of Congress Catalog-In-Publication Data. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kUO5NWwaySYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA61&dq=Frederick+Herzberg+motivation+hygiene&ots=UE9CujJmGJ&sig=F1v7olQGCGpeMVdG5AbYF6z6xEM#v=onepage&q&f=false One very important motivational theorist is Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg developed a motivational approach known as the Motivation Hygiene approach. This approach contains to hypothesis on how people are motivated to work. The Achievement Motivation Theory explains three motives that drive people to work harder. They are achievement, power, and affiliation. The only way an individual... ....(2011). Principles of Business Management: A real World Approach. P. 275-293 Taylor, F. W. (1964). Shop Management. In Scientific Management (Vol. 1, pp. 17-20). New York and London: Happy and Brothers Publishers. Retrieved April 17, 2014 McGraw-Hills, . (2012). Business Management Boundless, . (n.d.). Expectancy Theory. In Boundless. Retrieved April 13, 2014, from https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-behavior/process-and-motivation/expectancy-theory/ Adams, S. J., & Freedman, S. (1976). Equity Theory: Toward a General Theory of Social Interaction. In Experienced Social Psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 44-46). New York, NY: Academic Press Inc. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vxXx0d9euv8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA43&dq=equity+theory&ots=XFgWiiuQsJ&sig=f7dxRwEJW5i5cPN9Fh4H9YCx2_o#v=onepage&q=equity%20theory&f=false